Dynamic vegetation–soil–water feedbacks as an under-recognised source of structural uncertainty in digital soil mapping

Abstract. Digital soil mapping (DSM) produces spatially continuous soil information for land-use planning, carbon accounting, and Earth system analysis, resting on the SCORPAN framework and its use of remote-sensing and terrain covariates as indicators of soil-forming processes. Similar approaches estimate ecological and hydrological conditions from vegetation, moisture, and climate data. Two assumptions receive little scrutiny: that soil-covariate relationships stay constant in space and time, and that covariates act as independent predictors. In reality vegetation, soil, and water form a coupled system in which each influences the others, and the strength and even the direction of these interactions vary across landscapes and shift over time. We argue that these dynamic relationships are an important but under-recognised source of structural uncertainty, distinct from the sampling, measurement, and model-fitting error usually partitioned in DSM. Drawing on wetlands, drylands, sloping farmland, burned watersheds, drought-affected forests, and thawing permafrost, we show how the feedbacks break the assumptions behind DSM, why the same problem affects land-surface, ecological, and hydrological models, and how mapping might be made feedback-aware.