the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
| 25 Feb 2025
Tectonic controls on the formation and evolution of internally drained systems in the western Betics fold-and-thrust belt (S Spain)
Abstract. We analyse the drainage network in a depressed area within the western Betics fold-and-thrust belt (southern Spain) to investigate the Atlantic-Mediterranean water divide evolution after the Messinian Salinity Crisis (last 5 My). To do that, we made a hydro – geomorphic evaluation of streams and endorheic basins together with a detailed field-based analyses of post-Serravallian structural features. Results from the analysis of stream profiles and the application of SLk and χ indexes showed that Mediterranean streams present a higher incision capacity than Atlantic streams, tributaries of the Guadalquivir river. Moreover, several rivers captures of Atlantic river watersheds and of endorheic basins have been described and quantified. Although the Atlantic-Mediterranean water divide will probably move NW-ward, endorheic basins will still endure, hosted in a depressed area located between two active transpressive zones (the Algonales-Badolatosa and Torcal shear zones). Our results confirm that active tectonics have reshaped the area more intensively than previously considered, and that this modification had significant hydrological implications.
Competing interests: In previous works, we received unfair revisions from: Javier Elez (Universidad de Salamanca) and Pablo G. Silva (Universidad de Salamanca).
Publisher's note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this preprint. The responsibility to include appropriate place names lies with the authors.- Preprint
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RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-538', Anonymous Referee #1, 24 Apr 2025
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Jiménez-Bonilla et al proposed a new history of uplift and tectonic process to explain the Atlantic-Mediterranean water divide evolution and migration within the Betics fold and thrust belt since the Messinian time during the Messinian Salinity Crisis to Quaternary time. They applied rigorous geomorphological, geomorphometric and geological methodologies in order to show how the tectonics strongly influenced the evolution and migration of the water divide. They show that uplift and associated erosion processes are strongly controlled by the Messinian-Quaternary tectonic activity occurred in this part of the Betics Chain.
I really liked how they proposed this new view and the link with the tectonic activity. They clearly state in the Introduction which was the scientific gap to fill, and which methodologies would have applied.
I believe that this paper is worth for the publication before some minor comments attached the pdf file.
The only comment I state here is related to the last figure. Authors show a really detailed history of the evolution and migration of the water divide, strongly influenced by the tectonic activity, yet the last figure (Figure 11) shows scarce details about it. I would challenge authors to be more creative with Figure 11 trying to propose a more detailed figure (some 3D cartoon with all 4 phases since Messinian time…), where tectonics is shown more clearly. For example, authors could show where the TSZ zone is within the bigger figure of the Atlantic-Mediterranean palaeogeography. I believe this would help readers to better see all the detailed evolution described in their Results and Discussion. Of course, this is not something that would stop the publication but I believe it could give the last missing bit to this paper.
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AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Alejandro Jiménez-Bonilla, 14 May 2025
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The only comment I state here is related to the last figure. Authors show a really detailed history of the evolution and migration of the water divide, strongly influenced by the tectonic activity, yet the last figure (Figure 11) shows scarce details about it. I would challenge authors to be more creative with Figure 11 trying to propose a more detailed figure (some 3D cartoon with all 4 phases since Messinian time…), where tectonics is shown more clearly. For example, authors could show where the TSZ zone is within the bigger figure of the Atlantic-Mediterranean palaeogeography. I believe this would help readers to better see all the detailed evolution described in their Results and Discussion. Of course, this is not something that would stop the publication but I believe it could give the last missing bit to this paper.
Answer and Modification: Thank you very much for your valuable comments. We agree with the reviewer and we improved the figure. We added more information related to structures (adding some normal faults and folds) and to the Messinian Salinity Crisis. We added the effects of the sea level drop in the Mediterranean watershed during the Messinian, which probably lead to the formation of deep gullies. However, it is not possible to make a 3D model because the kinematics of structures is really complex and most of displacements would be out-of-plane.
LINE 18: How can say this. Perhaps it is something to show in the Discussion as possible scenario?
Answer and Modification: Thank you very much for this comment. We have included this hypothesis in the discussion section. Line 663: “). Nevertheless, they could be completely destroyed because of a quick NW-ward water divide movement.”
LINE 82: I would change with… “In this study, we aim to explore… “
Answer and Modification: We totally agree, we changed it accordingly.
LINE 84: I would change with… “we analyse”
Modification: Changed.
LINES 122, 130, 308, 346, 511 and 683 mention small changes in the MS.
Answer and Modifications: We totally agree with these changes and we introduced them in the new MS.
LINE 518: What do you mean with “emersion”? Do you mean emersion from the sea level? Do you mean the onset of the uplift? You should rephrase it.
Answer and Modifications: This sentence is confusing; thus, we improved the sentence and we write: “emersion from the sea level”. Uplift probably started before upper Miocene.
LINE 554: You need to specify units of measurements for strain rate values.
Answer and Modifications: We measured strain rate values in the Mesozoic units that crop out in the TSZ. We included it in the new MS.
LINE 562: Again, you need to explain better this word and the related meaning.
Answer and Modifications: Yes, we included the meaning: emersion from the sea level.
LINE 568: Rephrase it. I don`t understand what you mean.
Answer and Modifications: This sentence is confusing. We included: “from the rest of the Guadalquivir foreland basin”.
Finally, we appreciate this reviewer for the precious time in reviewing the paper and the comments, which help to improve the manuscript.
The authors.
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AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Alejandro Jiménez-Bonilla, 14 May 2025
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RC2: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-538', Anonymous Referee #2, 29 Apr 2025
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In this study, the authors investigated the evolution of the Atlantic-Mediterranean water divide in the western Betics (southern Spain) following the Messinian Salinity Crisis, using hydro-geomorphic analysis and structural field data. Their results reveal that active tectonics have strongly reshaped the region, enhancing the incision power of Mediterranean streams, driving river captures, and influencing the persistence of endorheic basins within a tectonically constrained depression.
The study is well-organized, featuring a strong introduction and a comprehensive background section. The results are interesting, though they could be further enriched, and the discussion has room for improvement. Specifically, the role of karst processes in the development of endorheic basins and in the evolution of underground water circulation is not addressed. This omission could significantly influence the interpretation of results, especially in relation to the calculation of the χ index.
In conclusion, if the authors make an effort to address this aspect, the manuscript would be acceptable for publication.
TECHNICAL ISSUES
LINE 16: Capitalize “River” consistently
LINES 35-38: The statement that drainage systems equilibrate over long timescales is debatable. Drainage system can equilibrate in a very short time. See Cook, K., Turowski, J. & Hovius, N. River gorge eradication by downstream sweep erosion. Nature Geosci 7, 682–686 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2224
LINES 40-41: Azañon et al. (2015) is not present in the reference list. Consider citing broader, more internationally oriented and recent examples - e.g. Moumeni, M., Delchiaro, M., Ballato, P., Della Seta, M., Nozaem, R., Clementucci, R., ... & Egli, M. (2025). Coupling of tectonics, climate, and lithology in orogenic systems: Insights from cosmogenic 10Be erosion rates and river profile inversion modeling in the Talesh Mountains, NW Iranian Plateau. Tectonics, 44(2), e2024TC008652. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024TC008652
LINES 48-52: This is a very interesting point. Consider expanding on the implications of these findings and previous knowledge.
LINE 64: Replace “inception” with “formation” or “initiation.”
LINES 82-90: Reiterate the main comment - consider the role of karst in shaping endorheic basins. See for reference: Pavano, F., Tortorici, G., Romagnoli, G., & Catalano, S. (2022). Age attribution to a karst system using river long profile analysis (Hyblean Plateau, Sicily, Italy). Geomorphology, 400, 108095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.108095
LINE 173: Better say “aimed at estimating uplift”?
LINE 202: Correct “indices”.
LINES 203-204: Better say “we analyzed the plano-altimetric characteristics of selected rivers”?
LINE 211: Correct “knickpoints” without “- “. Check it in the entire manuscript.
LINE 211: Did you distinguish lithological/tectonic controlled knickpoints? If yes, how? If not, why?
LINE 212: Why did you choose to use SL index and not ksn or mchi or slope area? I think a justification is needed here. As a possible helpful reference see the following paper:
Demoulin, A., Mather, A., & Whittaker, A. (2017). Fluvial archives, a valuable record of vertical crustal deformation. Quaternary Science Reviews, 166, 10-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.011LINES 215 and 218: Equations should be formatted. In “hf” should be a subscript. Use parentheses with “ln”.
LINE 216: How is the index normalized? State the equation SLk=...
LINE 220: What do you do with this horizontal distance? Not clear.
LINES 224-225: You already introduced those acronyms.
LINE 225: Correct “Paleo-watershed”.
LINE 228: How is it estimated? Or is it measured?
LINE 234: Any karst role evidence?
LINE 235: What do you mean? A constant climate from when to when? And how can you assume that? Please explain.
LINE 243: Chi is not an index. Indeed, index does not have a physical unit of measure while Chi is in meters. It should be named "metric". Check the entire manuscript.
LINE 249: “b” should be a subscript. Moreover, “l/n” should be “1/n”.
LINE 251: “0” should be a subscript.
LINES 258-259: It is possible to assess the divide migration if same erodibility is assumed as well as the same base level. Here it is very important to justify the eventual effect of karst on the drainage area changes.
LINE 268: I do not like the results' section subdivision (I, II, III, IV). I would prefer a unique Results section in which you can distinguish 3 subsections dedicated to the main results (Structural analysis, Uplift estimates and Geomorphic analyses).
LINE 308: What does the PNOA acronym stand for?
LINE 341: Correct “hm-hectometric-scale”.
LINE 380: Should not be moved to the methods section?
LINES 407-408: “1” should be a subscript.
LINE 446 and LINE 463: Consider changing “source” with “channel-head”.
LINE 455 and LINE 461: Correct “SLk”
LINE 460 and LINE 468: Correct "River”
LINE 511: Choose a more appropriate term instead of “birth”. Maybe “formation”?
LINE 540: Correct “geomorphological” and explain what models you are talking about.
LINES 544-546: Give more details.
LINE 583: Consider changing “inception” with “formation”
FIGURE 1: Correct “Guadalquivir River” and “Guadalhorce River”. Is the tectonic map taken from some sources? If yes, cite them.
FIGURE 2: Explicit the coordinate reference system.
FIGURE 8: What do you mean by "modified"? Is it not a result of this study? Why show a modified figure here instead of new results?
FIGURE 10: I think it would be better to implement also the lithology here so that you can easily distinguish the lithological controlled knickpoints.
Citation: https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-538-RC2 -
AC2: 'Reply on RC2', Alejandro Jiménez-Bonilla, 15 May 2025
reply
In this study, the authors investigated the evolution of the Atlantic-Mediterranean water divide in the western Betics (southern Spain) following the Messinian Salinity Crisis, using hydro-geomorphic analysis and structural field data. Their results reveal that active tectonics have strongly reshaped the region, enhancing the incision power of Mediterranean streams, driving river captures, and influencing the persistence of endorheic basins within a tectonically constrained depression.
The study is well-organized, featuring a strong introduction and a comprehensive background section. The results are interesting, though they could be further enriched, and the discussion has room for improvement. Specifically, the role of karst processes in the development of endorheic basins and in the evolution of underground water circulation is not addressed. This omission could significantly influence the interpretation of results, especially in relation to the calculation of the χ index.
Answer and Modifications: We thanks the revferee for the effort to review the MS. We understand that the referee is suggesting that if karstification is responsible for the nucleation of playa-lakes and ponds, it must also influence the drainage network and thus, the results derived from the application of the X metrics. However, our understanding is that classical karstification (at least in limestones) typically creates recharge systems, such as dolines. Those ecosystems are normally fresh-water bodies. However, countryside and playa-lakes in Andalusia tend to function as discharge systems. Although there are different types of playas, most of the systems could be classified as brackish-to-brine discharge water bodies (Rodríguez-Rodríguez, 2007). This distinction highlights a key difference in karstification processes in gypsum. Once the lake has formed, dissolution ceases to be effective, the basin is endorheic, and the bottom of the basin becomes a discharge playa-lake. Therefore, salts accumulate within the lake and below the lake, forming a groundwater brine below the surface of the playa-lake. A saline interphase is created in a similar way as in a coastal aquifer. The most evident case of this situation in Fuente de Piedra Playa-lake, in Málaga province (Kohfahl et al, 2008). Because of that, we discard the classical karstification process as a main process in the study area. To make this issue clearer, we have explained it in the new MS (see subsequent comments).
Kohfahl, C., Rodriguez, M., Fenk, C., Menz, C., Benavente, J., Hubberten, H., ... & Pekdeger, A. (2008). Characterising flow regime and interrelation between surface-water and ground-water in the Fuente de Piedra salt lake basin by means of stable isotopes, hydrogeochemical and hydraulic data. Journal of Hydrology, 351(1-2), 170-187..
Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M. (2007). Hydrogeology of ponds, pools, and playa-lakes of southern Spain. Wetlands, 27(4), 819-830.
TECHNICAL ISSUES
LINE 16: Capitalize “River” consistently
Answer and Modifications: Thank you very much, we homogenized in the ne MS.
LINES 35-38: The statement that drainage systems equilibrate over long timescales is debatable. Drainage system can equilibrate in a very short time. See Cook, K., Turowski, J. & Hovius, N. River gorge eradication by downstream sweep erosion. Nature Geosci 7, 682–686 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2224
Answer and Modifications: Thank you very much for this comment. We actually mean that the drainage system equilibrate in short periods of time: “ Afterward, drainage networks equilibrium is achieved in relatively short time, from 1000 to 100,000 yr., although the lithology, the climate or the watershed size may change this timespan (Whipple and Tucker, 1999; Korup, 2006).”. In order to make this sentence clearer, we removed “from 1000 to 100,000 yr”, which may be confusing. Moreover, we added this reference.
LINES 40-41: Azañon et al. (2015) is not present in the reference list. Consider citing broader, more internationally oriented and recent examples - e.g. Moumeni, M., Delchiaro, M., Ballato, P., Della Seta, M., Nozaem, R., Clementucci, R., ... & Egli, M. (2025). Coupling of tectonics, climate, and lithology in orogenic systems: Insights from cosmogenic 10Be erosion rates and river profile inversion modeling in the Talesh Mountains, NW Iranian Plateau. Tectonics, 44(2), e2024TC008652. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024TC008652
Answer and Modifications: We totally agree with this comment, we removed Azañón et al. (2015) and we added Moumeni et al., 2025.
LINES 48-52: This is a very interesting point. Consider expanding on the implications of these findings and previous knowledge.
Answer and Modifications: We agree with the reviewer. We explain more in the new MS this issue and we added more references. We added: “These closed watersheds present a rather simple water balance, with inputs mainly from surface runoff and negligible infiltration (e.g. Rodriguez-Rodriguez et al., 2012; Jiménez-Bonilla et al., 2023).”
Jiménez‐Bonilla, A., Díaz‐Azpiroz, M., & Rodríguez, M. R. (2023). Tectonics may affect closed watersheds used to monitor climate change and human activity effects. Terra Nova, 35(1), 58-65.
Jiménez Bonilla, A., Martegani, L., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M., Gázquez, F., Díaz-Azpíroz, M., Martos, S., ... & Expósito, I. (2024). Late-Quaternary hydrological evolution of Fuente de Piedra playa-lake (southern Iberia) controlled by neotectonics and climate changes. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2024, 1-27.
LINE 64: Replace “inception” with “formation” or “initiation.”
Answer and Modifications: We changed it into “water divide formation”.
LINES 82-90: Reiterate the main comment - consider the role of karst in shaping endorheic basins. See for reference: Pavano, F., Tortorici, G., Romagnoli, G., & Catalano, S. (2022). Age attribution to a karst system using river long profile analysis (Hyblean Plateau, Sicily, Italy). Geomorphology, 400, 108095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.108095
Answer and Modifications: In our study area, karstic processes are not significant in the endorheic watershed inceptions. Water balances of playa-lakes are actually conditioned by the presence of low-permeability rocks such as clays. In the study area, there are local karstic processes related to some isolated dolostones such as Mollina and Humilladero ranges. Karstic processes are not the dominant processes in the formation of these playa-lakes in the area. To make this point clearer, we have included the possibility of these processes in the introduction and we added it in the discussion.
LINE 173: Better say “aimed at estimating uplift”?
Answer and Modifications: We corrected it.
LINE 202: Correct “indices”.
Answer and Modifications: Thanks. We changed it.
LINES 203-204: Better say “we analyzed the plano-altimetric characteristics of selected rivers”?
Answer and Modifications: It is better. We changed it.
LINE 211: Correct “knickpoints” without “- “. Check it in the entire manuscript.
Answer and Modifications: In order to be consistent, we removed the “-“ in the new MS.
LINE 211: Did you distinguish lithological/tectonic controlled knickpoints? If yes, how? If not, why?
Answer and Modifications: We did not use knickpoints controlled by lithology. We explained better in the new MS by adding: “We discarded knickpoints due to lithological contrast by using the geological maps”
LINE 212: Why did you choose to use SL index and not ksn or mchi or slope area? I think a justification is needed here. As a possible helpful reference see the following paper:
Demoulin, A., Mather, A., & Whittaker, A. (2017). Fluvial archives, a valuable record of vertical crustal deformation. Quaternary Science Reviews, 166, 10-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.011Answer and Modifications: It is truth that it is not well address, thus we included in the new MS: “We used this index because this normalization (Demoulin et al., 2017) allows us to obtain comparable values between different rivers and to compare with other works in the study area (e.g. Jiménez-Bonilla et al., 2015).”
LINES 215 and 218: Equations should be formatted. In “hf” should be a subscript. Use parentheses with “ln”.
Answer and Modifications: We included them in the new MS.
LINE 216: How is the index normalized? State the equation SLk=...
Answer and Modifications: The mathematical development is well explained in Pérez-Peña et al., 2009. We included it in the new MS.
LINE 220: What do you do with this horizontal distance? Not clear.
Answer and Modifications: It was not clear, then we changed this sentence into: “Measurements were made each 250 m along stream profiles”
LINES 224-225: You already introduced those acronyms.
Answer and Modifications: Yes, then we removed the explanation and we used the acronyms.
LINE 225: Correct “Paleo-watershed”.
Answer and Modifications: Thanks, we corrected.
LINE 228: How is it estimated? Or is it measured?
Answer and Modifications: It was estimated, we changed. We estimated because we considered W/AFS constant. We added it in the new MS.
LINE 234: Any karst role evidence?
Answer and Modifications: Karstic processes are not dominant in the area. Although the karstification of small dolostones/evaporites outcrops may condition the nucleation of some playa-lakes as we mentioned before, they do not influence the endorheic watershed configuration. To make it clearer, we added in the new MS: “Karstic processes as local processes may control the location of some playa-lakes (the flooded areas). Once the lake has formed, dissolution ceases to be effective, the basin is endorheic, and the bottom of the basin becomes a discharge playa-lake (e.g. Fuente de Piedra playa-lake; Kohfahl et al., 2008). "
We added also a new reference:
Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M., Martos-Rosillo, S., Pedrera, A., & Benavente-Herrera, J. (2015). Ratosa playa lake in southern Spain. Karst pan or compound sink?. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 1-15.
LINE 235: What do you mean? A constant climate from when to when? And how can you assume that? Please explain.
Answer and Modifications: Climate maintained roughly constant during the Holocene, and changes occurred during the Pleistocene would not significantly change the flooded areas as observed in Jiménez-Bonilla et al., 2024. We better explained in the new MS.
LINE 243: Chi is not an index. Indeed, index does not have a physical unit of measure while Chi is in meters. It should be named "metric". Check the entire manuscript.
Answer and Modifications: Thank you very much for the valuable comment. We changed it along all the MS.
LINE 249: “b” should be a subscript. Moreover, “l/n” should be “1/n”.
Answer and Modifications: Thanks, we changed.
LINE 251: “0” should be a subscript.
Modification: Changed
LINES 258-259: It is possible to assess the divide migration if same erodibility is assumed as well as the same base level. Here it is very important to justify the eventual effect of karst on the drainage area changes.
Answer and Modifications: Thank you very much because this issue had to be explained in the MS. Karstic processes may affect the application of X and the divide migration. As we explained before, karstic processes are not dominant in the study area. When water balances are made, groundwater recharge/discharge into the water body may be discarded, then, most of the endorheic watershed is low-permeable. Moreover, clays and other low-permeability rocks crop out in the study area. To make it clearer, we have included in the new MS: “Karstic processes as local processes may control the location of some playa-lakes (the flooded areas). Once the lake has formed, dissolution ceases to be effective, the basin is endorheic, and the bottom of the basin becomes a discharge playa-lake (e.g. Fuente de Piedra playa-lake; Kohfahl et al., 2008).”
LINE 268: I do not like the results' section subdivision (I, II, III, IV). I would prefer a unique Results section in which you can distinguish 3 subsections dedicated to the main results (Structural analysis, Uplift estimates and Geomorphic analyses).
Answer and Modifications: We totally agree with the reviewer, we changed it in the new MS.
LINE 308: What does the PNOA acronym stand for?
Answer and Modifications: It means Plan Nacional de Ortografía Aérea in Spanish. We included it in the new MS.
LINE 341: Correct “hm-hectometric-scale”.
Answer and Modifications: Changed.
LINE 380: Should not be moved to the methods section?
Answer: This is the simplification of the equation because of the results in the study area. Then, we should maintain this part in the results sections.
LINES 407-408: “1” should be a subscript.
Answer and Modifications: Changed.
LINE 446 and LINE 463: Consider changing “source” with “channel-head”.
Answer and Modifications: Changed.
LINE 455 and LINE 461: Correct “SLk”
Answer and Modifications: Corrected.
LINE 460 and LINE 468: Correct "River”
Answer and Modifications: Corrected.
LINE 511: Choose a more appropriate term instead of “birth”. Maybe “formation”?
Answer and Modifications: Formation is a more adequate term, we changed it in the new MS.
LINE 540: Correct “geomorphological” and explain what models you are talking about.
Answer and Modifications: Formation is a more adequate term, we changed it in the new MS.
LINES 544-546: Give more details.
Answer and Modifications: We included sentences to explain better this model: “Previous works measured the post-Tortonian uplift using geomorphical features related to previous sea level. “. “These models do not consider either the post-Tortonian uplift in the Atlantic watershed.”
LINE 583: Consider changing “inception” with “formation”
Answer and Modifications: Thanks. We changed along the new MS.
FIGURE 1: Correct “Guadalquivir River” and “Guadalhorce River”. Is the tectonic map taken from some sources? If yes, cite them.
Answer and Modifications: Thanks. We changed “River” and we included the source: Balanyá et al., 2007 and Crespo-Blanc et al.., 2016.
FIGURE 2: Explicit the coordinate reference system.
Answer and Modifications: They are UTM coordinates. We added them in the figure captions: “Coordinate system: WGS 84, zone 30N.”
FIGURE 8: What do you mean by "modified"? Is it not a result of this study? Why show a modified figure here instead of new results?
Answer and Modifications: Sorry, they are new results, but geological and other information is extracted from other works. To be clearer, we removed “modified from” in the figure captions.
FIGURE 10: I think it would be better to implement also the lithology here so that you can easily distinguish the lithological controlled knickpoints.
Answer and Modifications: Lithologies were already included in the stream profiles. We added colours to make the figure more readable.
Finally, we appreciate this reviewer for the valuable comments to improve the paper, which help to improve the manuscript.
The authors.
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AC2: 'Reply on RC2', Alejandro Jiménez-Bonilla, 15 May 2025
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