the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
What caused record-breaking aerosol loading over the South China Sea in April 2023
Abstract. In April 2023, the South China Sea (SCS) experienced an unprecedented surge in aerosol loading, reaching the highest levels recorded in the two-decade Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data period (2003–2023). Satellite observations revealed a 150 % increase in aerosol optical depth (AOD) from MODIS and a 50 % rise in carbon monoxide (CO) at 700 and 500 hPa from Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere (MOPITT) over SCS. Here, we investigate the drivers and atmospheric mechanisms responsible for this extreme event, identifying large-scale biomass burning (BB) across northern Peninsular Southeast Asia (PSEA), particularly Laos and Myanmar as the primary source. Our analysis indicates that anomalously high surface temperatures, low soil moisture, reduced precipitation, and a persistent upper-tropospheric anticyclone created favorable BB conditions over PSEA. Laos alone accounted for ~56 % of the BB activity in the region, recording its largest monthly burned area (1.08 million hectares) since 2002. Dynamical analysis of the large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns revealed a major shift in regional wind regimes: the climatological south-westerlies over the SCS were replaced by anomalous northerlies, driven by the eastward shift of the Bay of Bengal anticyclone and the development of a cyclone anomaly over the western North Pacific (WNP). These changes redirected smoke transport from the usual WNP pathway to the SCS, resulting in significant transboundary pollution. This study highlights the critical role of compound meteorological extremes and circulation anomalies in amplifying regional aerosol loading, with implications for air quality, climate feedbacks, and environmental monitoring across Southeast Asia.
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Status: open (until 16 Oct 2025)
- RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-4223', Anonymous Referee #1, 26 Sep 2025 reply
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RC2: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-4223', Anonymous Referee #2, 26 Sep 2025
reply
This paper investigates the drivers of the record-breaking aerosol loading event over the South China Sea in April 2023, combining satellite observations, reanalysis data, and ground-based measurements. The study convincingly shows that large-scale biomass burning in northern Laos and Myanmar, combined with anomalous circulation patterns, caused unprecedented aerosol transport into the SCS. The integration of multiple datasets (MODIS, MOPITT, AIRS, OMI/MLS, and MERRA-2) strengthens the analysis, and the paper provides timely insights into extreme aerosol events under changing climate conditions. Overall, this work makes a valuable contribution to understanding regional transboundary pollution processes. I recommend minor revisions before acceptance.
(1) The fire activity analysis over Laos is a highlight of the study. Since you mention that 2023 had the largest monthly burned area on record, adding a supplementary figure comparing 2023 with other extreme fire years (e.g., 2016, 2003) would strengthen the historical context.
(2) The study identifies biomass burning in Laos as the major contributor to the April 2023 event. Could the authors clarify whether other regional fire sources (e.g., Maritime Continent or southern China) were quantitatively excluded, or whether their contributions are negligible compared to Laos?
(3) The circulation analysis (anticyclone over Bay of Bengal and cyclone over WNP) is central to the conclusions. It would help if the authors could briefly discuss whether such anomalous circulation patterns are unique to 2023, or if similar circulation shifts have occurred in past years without producing record-breaking aerosol loading.
(4) The study shows a strong correlation (r ~ 0.65) between AOD and CO anomalies. Could the authors expand on the physical interpretation? For example, does this imply biomass burning was the sole driver, or might secondary aerosol formation also have amplified AOD?
(5) The discussion links record-low soil moisture in Laos with enhanced fire intensity. Would it be possible to show a supplementary time series of soil moisture anomalies alongside fire counts to more directly demonstrate this relationship?
(6) Figure 2-4 provides rich information, but it is quite dense. For readers who are not familiar with the dataset, more explanatory notes or simplified illustrations (such as highlighting Laos as a fire hotspot) can improve accessibility. Figure 2c can be changed in color to highlight the contrast between Aqua and Terra.
(7) The schematic diagram in Figure 8 is excellent. Consider changing the color scheme of A/C cyclone and east-west wind to improve readability.
(8) The description of datasets is clear, but it would be useful to briefly summarize in one table the different satellite/reanalysis products used, their spatial/temporal resolutions, and the key variables. This would make the methodology section more reader-friendly.
(9) Since the paper emphasizes Southeast Asian fire climatology, it may be helpful to cite prior works that have quantified the magnitude and variability of fire activity in this region, such as Cohen (2014) and Cohen et al. (2017). Adding these references would provide a stronger background for the discussion of extreme fire activity in 2023. (https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/11/114018; https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-721-2017)
(10) When mentioning black carbon transport and associated trace gases, the authors may consider citing recent top-down studies on BC and CO emissions in Asia (e.g., Wang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2025). These works would complement the current study by highlighting related emission and transport perspectives. (https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF002167; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-025-00977-2)
Citation: https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4223-RC2 -
RC3: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-4223', Anonymous Referee #3, 26 Sep 2025
reply
The manuscript presents a thorough analysis of an unprecedented aerosol loading event over the South China Sea (SCS) in April 2023, using multiple satellite datasets and reanalysis products. The authors convincingly identify biomass burning in Laos and Myanmar as the primary source, and they discuss the unusual circulation anomalies that directed smoke transport into the SCS. The study is timely, relevant, and potentially impactful, especially given the increasing frequency of climate–fire extremes. However, I believe the manuscript requires further development before it can be accepted. My major concerns relate to the quantification of uncertainties, the robustness of transport attribution, and the integration of climate drivers. I detail my comments below.
Major Comments
- Uncertainties in Observational Datasets
- The manuscript reports extreme anomalies in MODIS AOD (>4σ) and MOPITT/AIRS CO (>3σ), but little discussion is provided regarding retrieval errors, biases, or limitations.
- Please provide a clearer treatment of uncertainties, for example: known MODIS biases over ocean and land, vertical sensitivity limits in MOPITT CO, and representativeness of reanalysis aerosol products. A sensitivity analysis (e.g., comparison across Aqua vs. Terra MODIS, MOPITT vs. AIRS CO) would help quantify robustness.
- Transport Attribution and Circulation Analysis
- The explanation of northerly transport due to the Bay of Bengal anticyclone and western North Pacific cyclone anomaly is plausible, but remains descriptive.
- I strongly recommend including trajectory or dispersion modeling (e.g., HYSPLIT, FLEXPART) to explicitly demonstrate that biomass burning plumes from Laos could reach the SCS. Alternatively, a composite analysis of circulation anomalies in other strong-fire years could be used to strengthen causality.
- Link to Large-Scale Climate Drivers
- The manuscript notes the La Niña–El Niño transition and a tri-polar SST anomaly structure but does not fully connect these anomalies to the extreme biomass burning and circulation changes.
- Please expand the discussion to show whether such SST/ENSO anomalies have historically coincided with enhanced PSEA burning or altered circulation patterns. This would greatly strengthen the broader climate relevance of the study.
Minor Comments
- Figures and Visualization
- Several figures (e.g., Figs. 2, 3, 5, 6) are visually dense with overlapping hatching and color contours. Please simplify or separate key results, and ensure legends are large and consistent.
- Terminology Consistency
- The text alternates between “TCO” and “TOC” for tropospheric ozone. Please standardize terminology throughout.
- Ground-Based Validation
- AERONET data from Dongsha Island and Lulin are mentioned but not analyzed in detail. I suggest including explicit time series plots and quantitative comparisons with satellite AOD to reinforce credibility.
- Literature Context
- The manuscript could benefit from more thorough discussion of prior SCS and Southeast Asian biomass burning studies (e.g., 7-SEAS campaigns, Lin et al. 2013; Reid et al. 2013). This would help contextualize the novelty of the April 2023 event.
- Language and Style
- Some sentences are repetitive (e.g., emphasis on Laos’ share of BB activity) and could be streamlined. Please also ensure consistent reference to “Supplementary Figures” rather than “Sup. Figures.”
- Outlook / Future Work
- The conclusions briefly mention aerosol–radiation interactions and links to heatwaves. I encourage a more explicit outlook section, highlighting next steps such as quantifying radiative forcing or simulating impacts with chemistry–climate models.
Citation: https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4223-RC3
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General Comment
The manuscript addresses the record-breaking aerosol loading over the South China Sea (SCS) in April 2023, attributed to biomass burning (BB) over the northern Indochina Peninsula. While the topic is of regional and global importance, the study suffers from several critical issues. The methodology is overly simplistic, the novelty is limited, the logical flow is confusing, and key presentation elements (maps, data classification, figures) do not meet the standards of a top-tier journal. In its current form, the manuscript reads more like a descriptive case report rather than an in-depth scientific analysis. Substantial revision is needed before it can be considered for publication.
Major Comments
Minor Comments