| 24 Aug 2026
Characteristics and Mechanism of the Earthquake-Induced Sand Liquefaction in the January 7, 2025, Dingri MW7.1 Earthquake
Abstract. Sand liquefaction is a major secondary hazard following strong earthquakes, often causing lateral spreading, surface settlement, and sand volcanoes that lead to significant structural damage and economic losses. This study investigates sand liquefaction phenomena induced by the MW 7.1 Dingri earthquake in Tibet on January 7, 2025, aiming to reveal its spatial distribution and dynamic evolution. Using field surveys, drone imagery, remote sensing interpretation, and drilling data, the study identifies three main liquefaction zones: the southern Pengqu River valley, the area near Dingmu Co Lake, and the southeastern side of Kongmo Co Lake. Groundwater depths in the affected basin ranged from 5.6 to 9.0 meters, closely aligning with local river and lake water levels. Surface damage was dominated by lateral spreading and sand volcanoes. Field evidence and stress analysis suggest a multi-phase evolution: under tectonic stress and gravity, tensile fractures form; seismic vibration triggers liquefaction, with pore fluid and sand being expelled through fractures. On gentle slopes, lateral spreading occurs as surface blocks slide and collide, generating additional fractures through compression, from which sand volcanoes erupt—often aligned linearly. This research offers critical insights into the mechanics of earthquake-induced sand liquefaction on the Tibetan Plateau and provides a foundation for future hazard assessment and mitigation efforts in seismically active, high-altitude regions.
The 2025 Dingri earthquake caused extensive surface deformation. Shortly after the earthquake, the authors conducted field investigations in this high-altitude and cold environment, using a combination of field surveys, drone imagery, remote sensing interpretation, and drilling data, systematically documented and described the characteristics of earthquake-induced sand liquefaction and associated surface deformation, and provided reasonable interpretations of the underlying mechanisms. This study not only expands the global database of earthquake-induced sand liquefaction cases, but also provides valuable references for the identification and assessment of earthquake-induced surface hazards in similar high-altitude plateau environments. Therefore, this manuscript has considerable scientific and practical significance. However, at the current stage, there are still a number of detailed issues that need to be addressed, and further improvements are needed. I believe that with appropriate revisions addressing the following issues, the overall quality of the manuscript can be substantially improved, and the manuscript has the potential to become a good scientific contribution.
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My main concerns are as follows:
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1, Many place names and geographic features mentioned in the manuscript need to be appropriately and clearly labeled on the figures, such as Dingmu Co, Pengqu River, Yammu Ding Co, Changsuola Reservoir, Kongmo Co, Nixia Co, Yeru Zangbu, as well as the boundary between the northern and southern sections of the coseismic deformation belt; Dingmu Co Basin, Guojia Basin, and Dingjie Basin should also be clearly indicated.
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2, Section 3.5 uncertainties and limitations is recommended to be shortened appropriately, and the relevant content moved to Section 7.1 Discussion, so that the overall structure of the manuscript is more concise and logically organized.
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3, The current title of Section 5 is “Spatial Distribution of sand liquefaction and Identification of Representative Deformation Units.” It could be divided into two subsections: 5.1, “Spatial Distribution of sand liquefaction,” and 5.2, “Identification of Representative Deformation Units.” The latter could then be further divided into the two existing subsections. This revision would make the structure and hierarchy of this section clearer.
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Some detailed issues are listed below:
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Dingmu Cuo should be consistently changed to Dingmu Co throughout the manuscript.
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L16/32/95: MW→Mw
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L20: Section 4.2 describes two representative study areas, whereas the Abstract mentions three areas, including Kongmo Co. Please check whether the descriptions throughout the manuscript are consistent.
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L68/96: Shenza-Dingjie (Dingjie-Shenza)→Dinggye-Xainza
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L86-87: Please explicitly indicate that the magnitude is Ms.
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L89: Please mark the locations of these two earthquakes on Figure 2.
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L105-106: longest→long; in addition, both the length and width of the ellipse representing the intensity IX area appear to be too large. Please further verify and adjust its size.
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L213-214: The timing of the pre-earthquake and post-earthquake imagery has already been described in Section 3.1, so it is unnecessary to repeat this information here. Please consider removing the repetition.
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L357: 5a, c, 7→5a, 5c, and 7; similar cases should be checked and corrected throughout the manuscript.
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L407/409: Please verify whether the citation of Figure 8 is correct.
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L433: Put location D007 on Figure 2.
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L445: Please distinguish the number of felt earthquakes from the number of very small earthquakes to avoid combining different types of events.
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L485: 10b→11b
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Fig. 1:
In Fig. 1a, the elevation color bar needs to be adjusted. At present, it is difficult to clearly identify whether the reddish color represents a depth of 8 km;
In Fig. 1b, Tso should be consistently changed to Co;
Many place names should also be made consistent between the figures and the text, such as Woka→Oiga, Dingjie→Dinggye, Shenza→Xainza, Dangra→Tangra, Cuoqin→Coqen, Gaize→Gerze, and Taruo→Taro;
GCR: Geren Co Fault→GCF: Gyaring Co Fault;
BCR: Bencuo Fault→BCF: Beng Co Fault;
XF, whereas XSF is used in the figure;
JF, whereas JLF is used in the figure;
The full names corresponding to HYF, KLF, SGF, RRF, and LMF are missing. Please provide the full names in the figure caption;
Please indicate that the blue dashed rectangle represents Fig. 2;
Xigaze in Fig. 1b and Shigatse in the caption of Fig. 2 should be made consistent;
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Fig. 2：
The fault data used in Fig. 2 are from a different source than those used in Fig. 1. Please consider using consistent fault datasets.
The light-blue rectangle indicates Fig. 3 rather than Fig. 4 and should therefore be corrected.
I strongly suggest considering merging Fig. 2 with Fig. 1, because Fig. 2 currently contains relatively limited additional information. Merging the two figures may improve the overall information density and readability of the figure set.
In addition, the data source of the intensity data should be provided.
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Fig. 3:
Please add Qh and Qp to the sediment legend.
What figures or areas are indicated by the two green dashed rectangles? Please label them clearly.
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Fig. 6:
Please clearly indicate on Fig. 6 the precise locations and viewing directions of the field photographs shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
In addition, since the figures are cited in the order of Fig. 6, Fig. 5, and Fig. 4 in the text, Fig. 6 should be placed before Figs. 4 and 5 to be consistent with the order of citation.
The location of Fig. 6d is missing in Fig. 6a;
The color of the seismogenic fault should be consistently shown in magenta.
Please provide information on the type of satellite imagery used and its spatial resolution. The key information here is the specific imagery and its spatial resolution, rather than simply the platform from which the imagery was downloaded.
Peng Qu should be marked in Fig. 6a.
The light-blue labels are difficult to distinguish in the figure; please use a more appropriate and clearly visible color.
In addition, do locations b–e in Fig. 8 correspond to the locations shown in Fig. 9?
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Fig. 2/3/6: Should " Location " be expressed as City/County/Town?
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Fig. 8:
In the caption, please clearly state that panel b shows the interpreted surface deformation, while the profiles below show the corresponding cross-sections.
P1 is currently missing and should be added.
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Fig. 11:
I suggest arranging the borehole profiles from west to east so that their spatial relationships can be more easily understood.
In addition, please add an independent elevation axis on the left side of the figure.
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Figs. 12-14:
There are currently no corresponding citations in the main text.