A review of Jinci Springs discharge in China: millennia utilization, decadal dry-up, and recent resurgence

Abstract. Jinci Springs, a historically significant karst spring system in the semi-arid region of northern China, has served as a critical water source and cultural landmark for millennia. This review synthesizes the socio-hydrological evolution of the springs, tracing transformations in water use, governance, and resilience from ancient times to the present. Early hydraulic interventions were primarily military-driven, later expanding to agricultural irrigation and ritual-based water governance. Over centuries, a hybrid governance system emerged that blended spiritual traditions, including water deity worship, with local institutions to mediate conflicts and allocate resources. In the modern era, intensified groundwater extraction—driven by technological advances and insufficient regulatory oversight—led to aquifer depletion and the cessation of spring flow in April 1994. The ensuing water crisis triggered a societal and institutional pivot toward conservation, culminating in a suite of restoration efforts and policy reforms. Intermittent spring resurgence began in May 2023, with continuous flow observed since September. This case underscores the importance of social adaptability, cultural continuity, and governance reform in maintaining spring systems under stress. By examining the long-term dynamics of Jinci Springs, this review contributes to broader discussions on socio-hydrological resilience and sustainable groundwater management in water-scarce regions.