| 06 Oct 2025
Implementation of Primary and Secondary Ice Production in EC-Earth3-AerChem: Global Impacts and Insights
Abstract. Clouds and aerosol–cloud interactions remain major sources of uncertainty in climate projections. We improve the representation of mixed-phase clouds (MPCs) in the EC-Earth3-AerChem Earth System Model by replacing the default temperature-dependent nucleation scheme with a physically based aerosol-sensitive heterogeneous ice nucleation parameterization. This scheme accounts for immersion freezing by K-feldspar, quartz, and marine organic aerosols, and is combined with a machine-learning-based parameterization of secondary ice production (SIP) to represent ice crystal multiplication.
The new configuration improves agreement with global in situ ice nucleating particle (INP) observations and reveals realistic spatial patterns of ice crystal number concentrations (ICNC). While biases in liquid water path persist, with overestimations in the tropics and underestimations at high latitudes, the aerosol-sensitive primary ice production scheme increases supercooled liquid water and cloud cover, particularly in the extratropics. Critically, the addition of SIP rebalances the cloud phase by enhancing ICNC in regions with low primary ice formation.
Compared to the default scheme, the aerosol-sensitive primary ice production configuration with SIP reduces cloud radiative effect biases at mid- and high latitudes, while increasing them in the lower latitudes, leading to comparable global biases across configurations. Our results highlight the importance of explicitly representing both aerosol-sensitive nucleation and SIP for realistic simulations of MPCs and their radiative impacts. Unlike previous schemes, in which ice concentrations depend directly on INPs, the presence of effective SIP enhances ice formation in all MPCs and reduces the sensitivity of ICNC to aerosols, especially at low INP levels.
Competing interests: I declare that neither I nor my co-authors have any competing interests, except that Maria Kanakidou currently serves as an editor for Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. This has been disclosed for transparency, and we have no other financial, personal, or professional interests that could influence the review of this manuscript.
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