the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
| 21 Jul 2025
Rocket-Induced Lower Ionosphere Disturbances Derived from Measurements of VLF Transmitter Signals
Abstract. Rocket launch can induce large-scale atmospheric disturbances, which were mainly investigated using measurements of total electron content (TEC) in previous studies. In this study, we report the perturbations in Very-Low-Frequency (VLF) transmitter signals triggered by three rocket launch events, which, different from TEC measurements, are directly related to the D-region ionosphere. Although the rocket type, launch site, transmitting frequency, and receiver location were different, the perturbations in VLF measurements were similar in all three events. They typically occurred ~4–14 minutes after the liftoff, resulted in an amplitude change of up to 14 dB, and had a common period of ~3–7 minutes. Moreover, all perturbations consisted of two isolated pulses and this feature is notably different from previous measurements. The VLF amplitude change, in general, increases with the rocket weight and decreases with the distance from the launch site. Given the close correlation between rocket launch and VLF measurements, as well as the similarity between these events, these perturbations were likely caused by the shock acoustic waves generated during rocket launch since both the propagation speed and periods were similar.
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RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-3338', Paul Bernhardt, 26 Aug 2025
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AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Jingyuan Feng, 16 Sep 2025
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The comment was uploaded in the form of a supplement: https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2025/egusphere-2025-3338/egusphere-2025-3338-AC1-supplement.pdf
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AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Jingyuan Feng, 16 Sep 2025
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CC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-3338', Mark Clilverd, 24 Sep 2025
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The events shown on the NWC transmitter for 20 September 2021 and 31 October 2022 are part of a series of on/off periods as the transmitter comes back on after it's weekly maintenance period. I attach a pdf of the NWC transmitter amplitude from Seattle covering 3 hours of interest on each day. Initially the transmitter is off and only local background noise is recorded. The NWC transmitter powers on about 06 UT, switching on/off periodically for serval hours after that. This is fairly normal behaviour for NWC after its weekly maintenance period. It is therefore unlikely that rocket launches are the cause of the large amplitude changes reported in the paper. The data shown in the pdf was recorded in Seattle. The NWC - Seattle great circle path does not pass over the rocket launch area. This also reduces the likelihood that the large amplitude changes are rocket-induced.
The first event described, on 04 August 2022, is less clearly a transmitter artifact. However the NLK transmitter switches off at 15:00 UT on the 4th August, and that is observed as a small drop in amplitude in Figure 1 as recorded at GWS in Antarctica. Thus the blue 'estimated quiet time' line shown in Figure 1 is actually the noise floor after 15:00 UT. There were no transmitter on/off periods around the start of the event, i.e., at about 14 UT as shown in the plots in the attached pdf. NLK is shown from nearby in Seattle. A clear transmitter off occurs at 15:00 UT. Also plotted in the pdf are the amplitude variations of NLK and NML received at Rothera Base in Antarctica over the same time period as Figure 1, and approximately the same amplitude range. The NLK off at 15:00 is weakly seen, but no other variations occur that like those shown in Figure 1. The great circle paths of the NLK and NML transmitter signals received at Rothera, Antarctica would be very similar to those shown to GWS in the map in Figure 1, and would this be expected to show the same behaviour for a D-region perturbation located around the rocket launch site LSO.
In summary it is unclear that a good case has been made in the paper for rocket launch influences on VLF propagation.
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Review of Rocket-Induced Lower Ionosphere Disturbances Derived from Measurements of VLF Transmitter Signals by Jingyuan Feng, Wei Xu, Xudong Gu, Binbin Ni, Shiwei Wang, Bin Li, Ze-Jun Hu, Fang He, Xiang-Cai Chen, and Hong-Qiao Hu
This paper describes new observations of in the D-region from rocket launches. This paper should be published after considering the follow changes:
(1) The authors should start with a statement of the discovery first and then discuss how they are different from previous measurements. Besides VLF waveguide amplitude and phase and radio beacon TEC data, mention should be made of ionosonde observations. We recommend the abstract be rewritten as:
Very-Low-Frequency (VLF) signals from ground transmitters propagating for long distances in the earth-ionosphere waveguide showed changes that were coincident with three rocket launch events. These launches produced acoustic disturbances in the D-region ionosphere. Although the rocket type, launch site, transmitting frequency, and receiver location were different, the perturbations in VLF measurements were similar in all three events. Moreover, all perturbations consisted of two isolated pulses and this feature is notably different from previous measurements. The VLF amplitude change, in general, increases with the rocket weight and decreases with the distance from the launch site. Given the close correlation between rocket launch and VLF measurements, as well as the similarity between these events, these perturbations were likely caused by the shock acoustic waves generated during rocket launch since both the propagation speed and periods were similar.
These events are different than rocket launches that induce (a) large-scale atmospheric disturbances in the F-region, which were mainly investigated using measurements of total electron content (TEC) in previous studies [Mendillo et al., 1975; Bernhardt, 1987] or (b) acoustic wave disturbances that are detected with high frequency sounders of the ionosphere [Mabie, et al., 2016 or Mabie and Bullett, 2022].
(2) Mention that VLF measurements along long propagation paths in the earth-ionosphere waveguide has also shown impacts of the lunar tide and man’s lack of activity on the weekend [Bernhardt, Price, and Crary, 1981].
(3) Please add these references:
Paul A. Bernhardt, Kent M. Price, James H. Crary, Periodic fluctuations in the earth-ionosphere waveguide, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 86, No. A4, pages 2461-2466, April 1, 1981
Mabie, J.; Bullett, T. Multiple Cusp Signatures in Ionograms Associated with Rocket-Induced Infrasonic Waves. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 958. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13060958
Mabie, J.; Bullett, T.; Moore, P.; Vieira, G. Identification of rocket-induced acoustic waves in the ionosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2016, 32, 43.