Preprints
https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-254
https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-254
03 Feb 2025
 | 03 Feb 2025

Saudi Rainfall (SaRa): Hourly 0.1° Gridded Rainfall (1979–Present) for Saudi Arabia via Machine Learning Fusion of Satellite and Model Data

Xuetong Wang, Raied S. Alharbi, Oscar M. Baez-Villanueva, Amy Green, Matthew F. McCabe, Yoshihide Wada, Albert I. J. M. Van Dijk, Muhammad A. Abid, and Hylke Beck

Abstract. We introduce Saudi Rainfall (SaRa), a gridded historical and near real-time precipitation (P) product specifically designed for the Arabian Peninsula, one of the most arid, water-stressed, and data-sparse regions on Earth. The product has an hourly 0.1° resolution spanning from 1979 to the present and is continuously updated with a latency of less than two hours. The algorithm underpinning the product involves 18 machine learning model stacks trained for different combinations of satellite and (re)analysis P products along with several static predictors. As a training target, hourly and daily P observations from gauges in Saudi Arabia (n=113) and globally (n=14,256) are used. To evaluate the performance of SaRa, we carried out the most comprehensive evaluation of gridded P products in the region to date, using observations from independent gauges (excluded from training) in Saudi Arabia as a reference (n=119). Among the 20 evaluated P products, our new product, SaRa, consistently ranked first across all evaluation metrics, including the Kling-Gupta Efficiency (KGE), correlation, bias, peak bias, wet days bias, and critical success index. Notably, SaRa achieved a median KGE — a summary statistic combining correlation, bias, and variability — of 0.36, while widely used non-gauge-based products such as CHIRP, ERA5, GSMaP V8, and IMERG-L V07 achieved values of -0.07, 0.21, -0.13, and -0.39, respectively. SaRa also outperformed four gauge-based products such as CHIRPS V2, CPC Unified, IMERG-F V07, and MSWEP V2.8 which had median KGE values of 0.17, -0.03, 0.29, and 0.20, respectively. Our new P product — available at www.gloh2o.org/sara — addresses a crucial need in the Arabian Peninsula, providing a robust and reliable dataset to support hydrological modeling, water resource assessments, flood management, and climate research.

Publisher's note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this paper. While Copernicus Publications makes every effort to include appropriate place names, the final responsibility lies with the authors. Views expressed in the text are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher.
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Journal article(s) based on this preprint

08 Oct 2025
Saudi Rainfall (SaRa): hourly 0.1° gridded rainfall (1979–present) for Saudi Arabia via machine learning fusion of satellite and model data
Xuetong Wang, Raied S. Alharbi, Oscar M. Baez-Villanueva, Amy Green, Matthew F. McCabe, Yoshihide Wada, Albert I. J. M. Van Dijk, Muhammad A. Abid, and Hylke E. Beck
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 29, 4983–5003, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-4983-2025,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-4983-2025, 2025
Short summary
Xuetong Wang, Raied S. Alharbi, Oscar M. Baez-Villanueva, Amy Green, Matthew F. McCabe, Yoshihide Wada, Albert I. J. M. Van Dijk, Muhammad A. Abid, and Hylke Beck

Interactive discussion

Status: closed

Comment types: AC – author | RC – referee | CC – community | EC – editor | CEC – chief editor | : Report abuse
  • RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-254', Anonymous Referee #1, 05 Mar 2025
    • AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Xuetong Wang, 05 Jun 2025
  • RC2: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-254', Anonymous Referee #2, 30 May 2025
    • AC2: 'Reply on RC2', Xuetong Wang, 05 Jun 2025

Interactive discussion

Status: closed

Comment types: AC – author | RC – referee | CC – community | EC – editor | CEC – chief editor | : Report abuse
  • RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-254', Anonymous Referee #1, 05 Mar 2025
    • AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Xuetong Wang, 05 Jun 2025
  • RC2: 'Comment on egusphere-2025-254', Anonymous Referee #2, 30 May 2025
    • AC2: 'Reply on RC2', Xuetong Wang, 05 Jun 2025

Peer review completion

AR: Author's response | RR: Referee report | ED: Editor decision | EF: Editorial file upload
ED: Publish subject to revisions (further review by editor and referees) (06 Jun 2025) by Rohini Kumar
AR by Xuetong Wang on behalf of the Authors (11 Jul 2025)  Author's response   Author's tracked changes   Manuscript 
ED: Publish as is (14 Jul 2025) by Rohini Kumar
AR by Xuetong Wang on behalf of the Authors (17 Jul 2025)  Manuscript 

Journal article(s) based on this preprint

08 Oct 2025
Saudi Rainfall (SaRa): hourly 0.1° gridded rainfall (1979–present) for Saudi Arabia via machine learning fusion of satellite and model data
Xuetong Wang, Raied S. Alharbi, Oscar M. Baez-Villanueva, Amy Green, Matthew F. McCabe, Yoshihide Wada, Albert I. J. M. Van Dijk, Muhammad A. Abid, and Hylke E. Beck
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 29, 4983–5003, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-4983-2025,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-4983-2025, 2025
Short summary
Xuetong Wang, Raied S. Alharbi, Oscar M. Baez-Villanueva, Amy Green, Matthew F. McCabe, Yoshihide Wada, Albert I. J. M. Van Dijk, Muhammad A. Abid, and Hylke Beck
Xuetong Wang, Raied S. Alharbi, Oscar M. Baez-Villanueva, Amy Green, Matthew F. McCabe, Yoshihide Wada, Albert I. J. M. Van Dijk, Muhammad A. Abid, and Hylke Beck

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Short summary
Our paper introduces Saudi Rainfall (SaRa), a high-resolution, near real-time rainfall product for the Arabian Peninsula. Using machine learning, SaRa combines multiple satellite and (re)analysis datasets with static predictors, outperforming existing products in the region. With the fast development and continuing growth in water demand over this region, SaRa could help to address water challenges and support resource management.
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