Psychometric and cultural characterization of relative volcanic risk perception levels of individuals highly exposed to proximal activity from Villarrica volcano, Chile

Abstract. This study combines the Psychometric Paradigm and the Cultural Theory to analyze volcanic risk perception (VRP) of more than two hundred residents and a similar number of non-residents in the high-hazard zone of Villarrica volcano. While the psychometric approach captures statistical variations in VRP, Cultural Theory helps characterize cultural patterns influencing risk perception. Together, they provide a more comprehensive framework for emergency management. A key distinction is observed between residents and non-residents. Residents show lower knowledge scores but higher internal trust, suggesting strong community ties yet a limited understanding of volcanic hazards. Non-residents, in contrast, have higher knowledge but lower internal trust, which may lead to overconfidence in their ability to respond to eruptions. However, both groups share similar external trust, indicating confidence in authorities and experts, which is vital for adherence to safety measures. Demographic factors also influence VRP. Elderly individuals and those outside the workforce tend to have lower VRP, highlighting the need for targeted risk communication. Higher education levels correlate with higher VRP, while economic activity (e.g., tourism, agriculture) influences risk perception, with some groups exhibiting extreme variations. Further effort is needed on indigenous populations, as they show lower VRP, warranting better integration of indigenous knowledge into risk assessments. Similarly, gender and religion show no clear patterns, although they may still shape risk perception in a more complex way. Ultimately, understanding the cultural and social dimensions of VRP is essential for designing effective, group-specific risk communication strategies to strengthen community resilience.