the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
A numerical model for duricrust formation by water table fluctuations
Abstract. Duricrusts are hard elemental layers forming in climatically contrasted environments. Ferricretes (or iron duricrusts) are a type of duricrust, made of indurated iron layers. They form in tropical to semi-arid environments, but can be currently observed all around the world, in areas such as Africa, South America, India, and Australia. In most cases, they cap hills and appear to protect softer layers beneath. Two hypotheses have been proposed for the formation of duricrusts, i.e., the hydrological or horizontal model where the enrichment in the hardening element (iron for ferricretes) is the product of leaching and precipitation through the beating of the water table during contrasted seasonal cycles, and the laterisation or vertical model, where the formation of iron duricrusts is the final stage of laterisation.
In this article, we present the first numerical model for the formation of iron duricrusts based on the hydrological hypothesis. The model is an extension to an existing regolith formation model where the position of the water table is used to predict the formation of a hardened layer at a rate set by a characteristic time scale τ and over a depth set by the beating range of the water table, λ. Hardening causes a decrease in surface erodibility, which we introduce in the model as a dimensionless factor κ that multiplies the surface transport coefficient of the model.
Using the model we show under which circumstances duricrusts form by introducing two dimensionless numbers that combine the model parameters (λ and τ) as well as parameters representing external forcing like precipitation rate and uplift rate. We demonstrate that by using model parameter values obtained by independent constraints from field observations, hydrology and geochronology, the model predictions reproduce the observed conditions for duricrust formation. We also show that there exists a strong feedback from duricrust formation on the shape of the regolith and the position of the water table. Finally we demonstrate that the commonly accepted view that, because they are commonly found at the top of hills, duricrusts protect elements of the landscape is most likely an over-interpretation and that caution must be taken before using duricrusts as markers of uplift and/or base level falls.
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RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2024-160', John Webb, 19 Apr 2024
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This paper showcases a newly developed model for ferricrete formation and uses the outputs of the model to comment on the role of ferricretes in landscape evolution. The paper is clearly written and illustrated, and as a result generally easy to follow. The conclusions are generally well-argued. There are, however, some points that need additional thought, and the terminology requires modification.
- The most important point concerns how iron is transported and precipitated; the authors have not correctly described this, and it affects the model concept.
For the transport of iron in groundwater with more or less neutral pH (true for the vast majority of groundwater), conditions must be reducing; the iron is present as the reduced species Fe2+. For this to precipitate and form a ferricrete, the groundwater must be exposed to oxygen so it becomes oxidising; the Fe2+ converts to Fe3+ and automatically precipitates as poorly crystalline ferric hydroxide, which will crystallise as goethite or haematite over time. This is clearly explained in references like Drever (1997 The Geochemistry of Natural Waters: Surface and Groundwater Environments).
What this means is that ferricrete formation is not uniform; most ferricrete precipitates where the watertable intersects the surface and groundwater seeps occur, allowing maximum contact between the Fe2+-containing groundwater and the oxygen in the atmosphere. Thus the situation shown in Fig. 5 is an oversimplification of the true situation.
Ferricrete precipitation extends to the right beneath the hill because the groundwater is exposed to oxidising conditions at the watertable. This will be enhanced if the watertable fluctuates substantially; as the watertable falls, the groundwater retained as a meniscus around soil particles will be exposed to the air that now fills the pore spaces and the Fe2+ in solution will be oxidised and precipitate ferric hydroxide. The greater the watertable fluctuation, the greater the ferricrete precipitation.
The authors need to explain this more clearly in the text. Note that Fe2+ cannot accumulate (line 73) if it is dissolved in groundwater.
- An additional oversimplification in Fig. 5 is that the watertable is virtually never flat as shown; it is almost always a reflection of the topography with a gentler gradient. Thus, in Fig 5 it should slope gently to the left. This provides a hydraulic gradient that causes groundwater to flow to the left, helping to cause greater ferricrete precipitation where the watertable intersects the ground surface.
The model needs to be modified to take into account points 1 and 2.
- The two different hypotheses of ferricrete formation are more-or-less correctly differentiated, but need to be more carefully described. The difference is between iron that has been concentrated in situ as other elements have been removed, and iron that has been transported in groundwater and precipitated at some distance from its origin. The transport for the latter ferricretes is both lateral and vertical (the presence of vertical transport is evident from Fig 5; the ferricrete beneath the crest of the hill must have received iron transported vertically downwards). The first category of ferricretes is often called residual; the second category can be characterised as transported. Using these terms makes the distinction much clearer. Thus the word ‘lateral’ should be deleted in lines 76 and 413.
- The definition of laterite (lines 84-85) is incorrect because it excludes the abundance of iron oxy-hydroxides as a distinguishing feature. The term ‘laterite’ was originally applied to Fe-rich material in Kerala (India) by Buchanan (1807, A Journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar. East India Company, London). Therefore it is also not correct to say that “All rock types can weather into laterites under the right conditions”, because there has to be enough Fe in the rock originally to form a laterite.
- Lines 4-5, 64-65, 486 – “In most cases today, ferricretes are observed capping and protecting hills, at the top of landscapes” – this is not true of Western Australia, where ferricretes are abundant and largely occur in valleys (e.g. Anand & M. Paine 2002 Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 49, 3-162; Bourman et al 2020 Geomorphology 354 107017). And it is probably not true generally; this would help to confirm that ferricrete-capped hills commonly occur on only a small scale (line 487).
- The term ‘beating’ needs to be replaced by ‘fluctuation’. Beating has a different meaning: pulsation or throbbing, especially of the heart.
- The word ‘difficultly’ is extremely rarely used. It is better replaced by ‘difficult to’. So ‘difficultly measurable rates’ would become ‘difficult-to-measure rates’ and ‘difficultly soluble elements’ would become ‘difficult-to-dissolve elements’, although the latter would be better as ‘slightly soluble elements’.
Minor comments
“silcretes and calcretes form in arid environments” (line 38). Silcretes can also form in humid environments (Rozefelds et al. 2024 Gondwana Research 130, 234–249; Webb and Golding 1998; Journal of Sedimentary Research A, 68, 981-993).
Line 50 – ‘iron’ should be ‘iron oxides / oxy-hydroxides’
Line 58 – should be 1450 mm.yr-1 ?
Line 103 – new subheading needed
Line 482 – should be ‘result’
Citation: https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-160-RC1
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