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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">EGUsphere</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>EGUsphere</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">EGUsphere</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">EGUsphere</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub"></issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/egusphere-2026-4885</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Everything everywhere all at once: A single-cell LSTM network unifying multi-frequency, missing data, and discharge assimilation for robust operational flood forecasting</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Acuna Espinoza</surname>
<given-names>Eduardo Jose</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5218-9800</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
<sup>6</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Álvarez Chaves</surname>
<given-names>Manuel</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8990-3785</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Kratzert</surname>
<given-names>Frederik</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8897-7689</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Klotz</surname>
<given-names>Daniel</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9843-6798</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Gauch</surname>
<given-names>Martin</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4587-898X</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
<sup>5</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Lang</surname>
<given-names>Robert</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
<sup>6</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Elfgang</surname>
<given-names>Dominik</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
<sup>7</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Dolich</surname>
<given-names>Alexander</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4160-6765</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Loritz</surname>
<given-names>Ralf</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0540-6478</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Ehret</surname>
<given-names>Uwe</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3454-8755</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Institute of Water and Environment, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Google Research, Vienna, Austria</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Machine Learning in Earth Science, Interdisciplinary Transformation University Austria, Linz, Austria</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>Google Research, Zurich, Switzerland</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>6</label>
<addr-line>Hydron GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>7</label>
<addr-line>Hochwasservorhersagezentrale, Karlsruhe, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>03</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>2026</volume>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>21</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Eduardo Jose Acuna Espinoza et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2026/egusphere-2026-4885/">This article is available from https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2026/egusphere-2026-4885/</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2026/egusphere-2026-4885/egusphere-2026-4885.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2026/egusphere-2026-4885/egusphere-2026-4885.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Long short-term memory (LSTM) networks have demonstrated state-of-the-art capabilities in operational flood forecasting, with recent missing-data handling strategies further improving pipeline robustness. Building on these advancements, we introduce the multi-frequency masked-forecasting LSTM (MF&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;LSTM), a model architecture that combines missing-data workflows with multi-frequency approaches to generate hourly streamflow forecasts. Additionally, our framework features a flexible data assimilation strategy to include real-time discharge information. This approach enhances forecast performance when real-time observations are available, and allows the model to keep operating when the discharge signal is absent, either by gauge failure or for prediction in ungauged basins. We benchmarked the MF&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;LSTM against the Large Area Runoff Simulation (LARSIM) model, the current operational flood-forecasting model used by several European countries, forcing both models with ICON-D2 meteorological products. Our results indicate that the MF&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;LSTM yields higher predictive accuracy than LARSIM. Overall, this framework presents a robust operational pipeline that demonstrates the viability of deep learning for hourly forecasting. Furthermore, by relying on a standard single-cell LSTM architecture, the approach highlights that structurally simple deep learning architectures can achieve high operation performance.</p>
</abstract>
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